Near the entrance to the ancient temple of Apollo at Delphi were two famous inscriptions: “know thyself”, and “nothing in excess”. These inscriptions were intentionally open to interpretation, but knowing oneself was recognised as an important part of piety in the sense that a pious person recognises his or her imperfection in contrast to the divine. Similarly the winning athlete must recognise and confront his or her weaknesses in order to work on them directly and to achieve excellence by approaching the ideal.

The second inscription, “nothing in excess” relates directly to the Platonic virtue of sophrosune. Often translated as “temperance” or “self-control”, sophrosune corresponds well to the athletic ideal of discipline. Winning would be simple if it was just a matter of training volume, the runner who trained the most hours would automatically win. We know it doesn’t work that way, though, indeed it is delicate art for athletes to find ways of maximising improvement without exceeding mental, physical, and emotional limits.

In the athletic arena, as in the rest of the world, we suffer from excesses and deficiencies. From simple cases of over training and overuse injuries to serious diseases such as anorexia nervosa.

So the ancient virtues of piety and sophrosune, reflected in the Delphic exhortations to “know thyself” and take “nothing in excess” are manifest in the modern athletic virtues of self-knowledge and discipline. One good reason to love a winner is the recognition that victory requires a knowledge of oneself that is rare and difficult to achieve as well as the discipline to maximise individual potential without stopping short of or overstepping one’s limits. The recognition of one’s limitations must be tempered by a realistic yet ambitious drive toward maximum performance, this is a balancing act central to all forms of human excellence that can be learned through sport.

In his dialogue Laches, Plato identifies courage as a virtue to be cultivated by education. In his discussion with military leaders and the fathers of adolescents, Socrates shows that courage is much more than simple bravery in battle. It is the ability stick to a goal and persevere in the face of a desire to give up, combined with the knowledge of when and how to revise ones goals for the better.

The dedication and perseverance demanded by countless coaches are forms of the ancient virtue of courage. Winning athletes must be more than tough, they must overcome their fears and desires to quit but they must also realise when more will be lost that gained by staying the course. We should admire athletes who have heart, not those who are simply bold, brazen, brutal... heartless. Victors should be revered for combining strength and endurance with the wisdom necessary to use those tools effectively.

That the virtue of courage requires intelligence as well as toughness is illustrated by the nature of a true sporting challenge. The essence of sport is challenge. The greater the challenge, the greater the victory. An easy win against a low-ranked opponent is nowhere near as satisfying as a narrow victory over a formidable challenger. Likewise, an excellent performance against a much more accomplished opponent is often considered to be a kind of personal or moral victory despite being a “paper loss”. This is because we associate winning with facing a challenge, and therefore with the virtue of courage.

Challenges, by definition, are not overcome effortlessly; they require hard work, dedication, and perseverance. Winning is sweeter and winners are more admired when the challenges overcome are greater. Hence the almost universal plot of sports stories and movies: athlete begins by losing miserably or suffering a terrible setback; athlete pledges his allegiance to the goal of victory nonetheless; athlete trains tirelessly in pursuit if that goal; athlete achieves victory. The athlete’s victory is a reward for and sign of not simply toughness and endurance but the intelligent pursuit of excellence Plato described as courage.

Plato’s most famous work, the Republic, explores the virtue of dikaiosune, often translated justice. Sports in general and victory in particular are associated with justice. It is central to our perception – and of justice – that the outcome of a contest is not inevitable. When athletes take to a starting line, or during the opening kick-off, tip-off, or face-off of a game it is important that those athletes, their spectators, and the live television audience believe the outcome to be undetermined.

The belief that an athlete can win is just as important as the knowledge that he or she might lose, because if the outcome were predetermined the purpose of the game (not to mention its entertainment value) would be null and void. Accordingly, when this essential indetermination of victory is thwarted by a boxer who throws a fight or the external manipulation of a corrupt judge, we immediately recognise the injustice of the contest and we withdraw our admiration for its winner.

Pippo Psaila is a candidate for the Nationalist Party

The first part of this article was carried on 1 December. The third part will be published on 15 December